Human capital is a key determinant of success for individuals and economies alike. Literacy and numeracy are key foundations for higher-order cognitive skills, while solving problems in technology-rich environments is increasingly important, as information and communications technology (ICT) spreads into all aspects of life. Despite remarkable recent increases in enrolment and educational attainment, the countries of Latin America lag behind in skills development among both secondary school students and the wider adult population. Young adults are still struggling in the labour market, while employers report skill shortages are a barrier to business. As countries in the region seek to shift their economies into higher value-added activities to escape the "middle-income trap", they will need to improve the skills of their working-age population across the board. This report explores the situation of youth and adults in Latin America by using data from the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) from Chile, Ecuador, Mexico and Peru and the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) from Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, Mexico, Panama, Peru and Uruguay. These data have been supplemented by results from the World Bank STEP survey of adults living in urban areas of Bolivia and Colombia.

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Policy makers around the world recognise the importance of developing young people's 21st century skills like problem solving, creative thinking, self-regulation and collaboration. Many countries also include these skills as part of the intended learning outcomes of their education systems. To shift intention into practice, educational assessments need to better measure what matters. Innovative assessments are needed that combine conceptual, technological and methodological advances in educational measurement.
This report explores new approaches to measuring complex skills through a practical and applied assessment design lens, bringing together perspectives from leading experts to consider what we can learn from the learning sciences to define more authentic assessment experiences and expand the range of skills we are able to measure in both disciplinary and cross-disciplinary contexts of practice. The report also examines how technology can expand our possibilities for innovation, including the creation of more interactive and immersive problems and the generation of meaningful sources of potential evidence about students' proficiency. Finally, the report explores how we can make sense of the rich data captured in interactive digital environments using new analytical approaches, and how we can ensure the valid interpretation and use of results from innovative assessments.

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This report provides an overview of educational progress in Türkiye in the last two decades and reviews education policies which were developed and implemented during the same period. It considers a selection of policies operating from the levels of learners and institutions to system-level policies that are analysed through the lenses of comparative international data and OECD analysis of policies, programmes, and interventions that aim to support better outcomes and greater equity across national education systems. Conducted as a desk-based analysis, this report draws from the knowledge base of the OECD on education policy in Türkiye, national and international sources, and responses from the Ministry of National Education to a survey conducted for this report.

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The Croatian government views digitalisation as a way to improve access to higher education and increase its attractiveness. To this end, it is investing in modernising digital infrastructure and building capacity to effectively integrate digital technologies into the higher education sector. This report provides an account of the activities and findings of a project on assessing and improving digital maturity in Croatian higher education institutions, which was carried out by the OECD and funded by the European Union. The objective of the project was to provide support and advice to Croatian authorities as they develop their policy approach to higher education digitalisation.

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Digitalisation is transforming education as well as social and economic life, with implications for childhood. Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC), with its immense potential to shape children’s early development, learning and well-being, can play a major role in addressing the opportunities and risks that digitalisation brings to young children. Digitalisation also creates new ways of working that have the potential to lead to quality improvement in the ECEC sector. This report provides a 360-degree view of the challenges of digitalisation in ECEC and possible policy responses.

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This country policy profile on education in Australia is part of the Education Policy Outlook series. Building on the first policy profile for Australia (2013), it offers a concise analysis of where the education system stands today and how this compares to other systems. The profile analyses the evolution of ongoing and emerging related policy efforts in Australia, including education responses to the COVID-19 pandemic. It also offers relevant international policy examples that may serve as possible inspiration as policy makers work to address Australia's key challenges and priorities. The report brings together over a decade's worth of policy analysis by the Education Policy Outlook, as well as recent OECD data, relevant thematic and country-specific work, and other international and national evidence. It also benefits from the Education Policy Outlook's ongoing comparative analysis of resilience and responsiveness in education policy.

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The emergence of fully online, hybrid and blended forms of higher education has led governments, quality assurance agencies and higher education institutions (HEIs) across the OECD to reflect on how to ensure that digital education provides learners with opportunities to reach learning and employment outcomes similar to those achieved through traditional in person instruction. Building on stakeholder engagement and comparative analysis, this report offers an assessment of Hungary's quality assurance system for higher education and, more specifically, its strengths and weaknesses for assuring the quality of digital higher education. It offers recommendations and policy options to support the ongoing reform of Hungary's higher education accreditation system as well as a list of potential digital education indicators to be integrated in the assessment frameworks used by the Hungarian Accreditation Committee (MAB) for the accreditation of higher education institutions.

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Advances in artificial intelligence (AI) are ushering in a large and rapid technological transformation. Understanding how AI capabilities relate to human skills and how they develop over time is crucial for understanding this process.
In 2016, the OECD assessed AI capabilities with the OECD’s Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). The present report follows up the earlier study, collecting expert judgements in 2021 on whether computers can solve the PIAAC literacy and numeracy tests. It is part of a comprehensive ongoing project on assessing AI.
This study shows that AI could potentially outperform large shares of the population on PIAAC – 90% of adults in literacy and 57-88% of adults in numeracy. AI’s literacy capabilities had improved considerably since the 2016 assessment. According to experts, AI will solve the entire literacy and numeracy tests by 2026.
These findings have important implications for employment and education. Large shares of the workforce use literacy and numeracy skills daily at work with a proficiency comparable or below that of computers. AI could affect the literacy- and numeracy-related tasks of these workers. In this context, education systems should strengthen the foundation skills of students and workers and teach them to work together with AI.

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The 2022 Gender, Education and Skills Report on the persistence of gender gaps in education and skills presents fresh insights on progress towards gender equality in education. The report tries to understand why teen boys are more likely than girls, on average, to fail to attain a baseline level of proficiency in reading, mathematics and science, and why high-performing girls do not continue investing in developing skills in areas such as mathematics and science, when compared to high-performing boys. The report also describes that, despite overall gender gaps in mathematics and science being quite small, young women continue to be under-represented in STEM-related fields after leaving school. These career choices are also reflected in gender disparities in the labour market: tertiary-educated women earn 76% of the earnings of their male peers. This could be possible because men are more likely than women to pursue studies in fields associated with higher earnings, such as engineering, manufacturing and construction, and ICTs, while women still choose fields associated with lower earnings, including education, welfare, and arts and humanities.

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Governments and education policy makers are increasingly concerned with equity and inclusion in education due to several major global trends such as demographic shifts, migration and refugee crises, rising inequalities, and climate change. These developments have contributed to increasing diversity within national populations and flagged some concerns around the ability of education systems to be equitable and inclusive of all students. This report by the Strength through Diversity project examines how education systems can respond to increasing diversity and foster greater equity and inclusion in education. Based on a holistic framework for studying diversity, equity and inclusion in education, the report examines five key policy areas (i.e., governance; resourcing; capacity building; school-level interventions, and monitoring and evaluation), provides examples of policies and practices, and offers policy advice on promoting more equitable and inclusive education systems.

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The report on Resourcing Higher Education in Portugal is part of a series of publications produced by the OECD's Resourcing Higher Education Project. This project has sought to develop a shared knowledge base for OECD member and partner countries on effective policies for higher education resourcing through system-specific and comparative policy analysis. The review of resourcing in Portugal focuses on options for reform of the core public funding model for higher education institutions in Portugal, the strategic steering and funding of the future development of the public higher education system and the resourcing of policies to support widened access to higher education. Based on analysis and comparison of the current approach to higher education resourcing, the review provides recommendations to support future refinement of policies.

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The world demands bold action to meet the global goal of net-zero emissions by 2050. Young people will experience the consequences of climate change more directly during their lifetime than any previous generation in recent history. Education can play a pivotal role in preparing new generations for a greener future. What students learn may mean the difference between accepting the status quo and fostering sustainability to keep the world in ecological balance. Are students ready to actively address these environmental challenges? And how can education endow students with the knowledge, skills and pro-environmental attitudes they need? This report identifies the types of education policy and practices that can help students build an environmentally sustainable future.
The report finds varying levels of environmental knowledge and skills, attitudes and actions among 15-year-old students around the world. Students need stronger scientific knowledge and skills in environmental issues than they currently have, especially in countries and economies where student performance in science tends to be lower. Better performers in science have, on average, more pro-environmental attitudes than lower-performing students, and students with pro-environmental attitudes are more likely to take part in actions that benefit the environment.

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In 2021, an OECD team undertook analysis of Republic of Türkiye's data from two international assessments – the OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA)'s Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). The analysis aimed to understand how student performance in Türkiye has evolved over time and whether factors related to student background – such as gender or socio-economic background – are associated with performance. This policy perspective uses the findings from the PISA and TIMSS analysis to identify policy options to help Türkiye to raise performance and improve equity. It provides suggestions across five policy areas for Türkiye to create a stronger policy focus on overcoming obstacles for more equal opportunities for students.

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Policymaking has always been a matter of making choices, managing trade-offs and balancing multiple goals and priorities to make complex budgetary decisions. Yet, the past few years have seen a rising number of priorities facing policymakers, hence mounting pressure to enhance the efficiency of public spending. There is a strong case for public investment in high-quality education as it leads to a range of economic outcomes as well as broader social outcomes for both individuals and society. But while high-quality education will continue to enable individuals and societies to thrive and recover from disruptions, education ministries will need to rethink the way they invest in education to ensure that education systems deliver greater value for money. Following an introduction laying out the context, this publication first takes stock of the wealth of economic returns and broader social outcomes derived from high-quality education, making the case for continued public investment. It then turns to the examination of smart ways of investing in education and examines key policy levers that can help enhance value for money: governing and distributing school funding to make the most of education investments; achieving educational equity alongside greater efficiency; and planning, monitoring and evaluating the efficient use of school funding.

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The effects of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine (with its dramatic impact on energy and food prices), the continuation of the COVID-19 pandemic, and extreme weather events in some parts of the world in 2022 are expected to reverberate into 2023. International implications for education and training include economic uncertainty and tight labour markets, ongoing digital transformation, and continued growth and influence of mass information. These trends challenge education policymakers to transform existing pathways in their countries and economies, so people can become effective lifelong learners to navigate change. Building on the OECD’s Framework of Responsiveness and Resilience in Education Policy, as well as analysis of international policies and practices from over 40 education systems implemented mainly since 2020, this report identifies three areas of policy effort that education policymakers can undertake in 2023: 1) enhancing the relevance of learning pathways; 2) easing transitions throughout learners’ pathways; and 3) nurturing learners’ aspirations. Lessons emerging from recent policy efforts are synthesised into key policy pointers for 2023. The report has been prepared with evidence from the Education Policy Outlook series— the OECD’s analytical observatory of education policy.

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