Japan
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Japan
Adult skills (Survey of Adult Skills, PIAAC, 2023)
  • In Japan, adults aged 16-65 scored, on average, 289 points in literacy (above the OECD average), 291 points in numeracy (above the OECD average), and 276 points in adaptive problem solving (above the OECD average).
  • In literacy, 10% of adults (OECD average: 26%) scored at Level 1 or below, meaning they have low literacy proficiency. At Level 1, they can understand short texts and organised lists when information is clearly indicated, find specific information and identify relevant links. Those below Level 1 can at most understand short, simple sentences. At the other end of the spectrum, 23% of adults (OECD average: 12%) scored at Levels 4 or 5 in literacy and are high performers. These adults can comprehend and evaluate long, dense texts across several pages, grasp complex or hidden meanings, and use prior knowledge to understand texts and complete tasks.
  • In numeracy, 10% of adults (OECD average: 25%) scored at or below Level 1 proficiency. At Level 1, they can do basic maths with whole numbers or money, understand decimals, and find single pieces of information in tables or charts, but may struggle with tasks needing multiple steps (e.g. solving a proportion). Those below Level 1 can add and subtract small numbers. Adults at Levels 4 or 5 are top performers (25% in Japan, 14% on average across OECD countries and economies) . They can calculate and understand rates and ratios, interpret complex graphs, and critically evaluate statistical claims.
  • In adaptive problem solving, 11% of adults (OECD average: 29%) scored at or below Level 1 proficiency. Adults at Level 1 can solve simple problems with few variables and little irrelevant information, which do not change as they make progress towards the solution. They struggle with multi-step problems, or those needing monitoring of multiple variables. Adults below Level 1 at most understand very simple problems, typically solved in one step. Some 10% of adults (OECD average: 5%) scored at Level 4. They have a deeper understanding of problems, and can adapt to unexpected changes, even if they require a major re-evaluation of the problem.
  • When considering all three domains jointly, 7% of adults in Japan (OECD average: 18%) scored at the two lowest levels of these proficiency scales.
    • | Country note | Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) | Survey of Adult Skills 2023: Do Adults Have the Skills They Need to Thrive in a Changing World? | The Survey of Adult Skills - Reader's Companion | Understanding Skill Gaps in Firms: Results of the PIAAC Employer Module | Survey of Adult Skills 2023 Data Analysis Manual |

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    The following list displays indicators for which your selected country shows the highest and lowest values among countries. The list can be sorted by level of education or by age group. All rankings are calculated including available data from OECD and partner countries. Find out more about the methodology here.

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    Literacy

    The mean literacy score is high compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (289 PIAAC Score, rank 2/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The percentage of adults scoring high (at Level 2 or 3) in Iiteracy is high compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (23.4 %, rank 2/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The percentage of adults scoring at or below level 1 in Iiteracy is low compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (10.4 %, rank 31/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Numeracy

    The mean numeracy score is high compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (291 PIAAC Score, rank 2/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The percentage of adults scoring high (at Level 2 or 3) in numeracy is high compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (24.7 %, rank 2/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The percentage of adults scoring at or below level 1 in numeracy is low compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (9.9 %, rank 31/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Adaptive problem solving

    The mean score in adaptive problem solving in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) is high compared to other participating countries. (276 PIAAC Score, rank 1/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The percentage of adults scoring high (at Level 4) in adaptive problem solving in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) is high compared to other participating countries. (9.6 %, rank 2/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The percentage of adults scoring low (at or below Level 1) in adaptive problem solving in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) is low compared to other participating countries. (11.2 %, rank 31/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Skills differences between age groups

    The mean score in adaptive problem solving for 16-24 year-olds is high compared to other participating countries. (287 PIAAC Score, rank 2/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean score in adaptive problem solving for 55-65 year-olds is high compared to other participating countries. (256 PIAAC Score, rank 2/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean literacy score for young adults (16-24 year-olds) is high compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (298 PIAAC Score, rank 2/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean literacy score for older adults (55-65 year-olds) is high compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (268 PIAAC Score, rank 3/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean numeracy score for young adults (16-24 year-olds) is high compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (299 PIAAC Score, rank 1/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Skills differences by gender

    The mean score in adaptive problem solving for men is high compared to other participating countries. (277 PIAAC Score, rank 2/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean score in adaptive problem solving for women is high compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (276 PIAAC Score, rank 1/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean literacy score among men is high compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (289 PIAAC Score, rank 2/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean literacy score among women is high compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (289 PIAAC Score, rank 2/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean numeracy score among men is high compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (297 PIAAC Score, rank 2/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean numeracy score among women is high compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (285 PIAAC Score, rank 2/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Skills differences by level of education

    The mean score in adaptive problem solving for adults with below upper secondary education is high compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (226 PIAAC Score, rank 5/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean score in adaptive problem solving for adults with tertiary education is high compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (289 PIAAC Score, rank 1/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean literacy score for adults without upper secondary education is high compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (221 PIAAC Score, rank 7/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean literacy score for adults with tertiary education is high compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (308 PIAAC Score, rank 2/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean numeracy score for adults without upper secondary education is high compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (220 PIAAC Score, rank 8/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean numeracy score for adults with tertiary education is high compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (311 PIAAC Score, rank 2/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Skills by immigrant and language background

    The mean literacy score for foreign-born adults of foreign-born parents is low compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (194 PIAAC Score, rank 28/30 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean literacy score for native-born adults of native-born parents is high compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (291 PIAAC Score, rank 4/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean numeracy score for foreign-born adults of foreign-born parents is low compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (213 PIAAC Score, rank 24/30 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean numeracy score for native-born adults of native-born parents is high compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (293 PIAAC Score, rank 6/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean score in adaptive problem solving for foreign-born adults of foreign-born parents is low compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (208 PIAAC Score, rank 26/30 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean score in adaptive problem solving for native-born adults of native-born parents is high compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (278 PIAAC Score, rank 4/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Skills by parents' educational attainment

    The mean score in adaptive problem solving for adults whose parents did not attain upper secondary education is high compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (255 PIAAC Score, rank 1/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean score in adaptive problem solving for adults with at least one parent who attained tertiary education is high compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (289 PIAAC Score, rank 2/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean literacy score for adults whose parents had not attained upper secondary education is high compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (262 PIAAC Score, rank 3/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean literacy score with at least one parent with tertiary education is high compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (305 PIAAC Score, rank 2/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean numeracy score for adults whose parents had not attained upper secondary education is high compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (267 PIAAC Score, rank 2/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean numeracy score with at least one parent with tertiary education is high compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (306 PIAAC Score, rank 3/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Adults' skills

    The percentage of adults scoring at or below level 1 in literacy and/or numeracy is low compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (7.8 %, rank 31/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Who the teachers are

    The share of women among teaching staff in primary education is one of the smallest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (63.1 %, rank 41/43 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The share of women among teaching staff in lower secondary education is one of the smallest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (43.5 %, rank 39/39 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The share of women among teaching staff in upper secondary education is one of the smallest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (32.3 %, rank 41/41 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The share of women among teaching staff in tertiary education (bachelor's, master's, doctorate or equivalent education) is one of the smallest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (25.8 %, rank 37/37 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The share of women among teaching staff in tertiary education is one of the smallest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (30.8 %, rank 43/43 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The share of women among teaching staff is one of the smallest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (48.4 %, rank 36/36 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The percentage of lower secondary teachers younger than 30 is especially high. (19 %, rank 4/36 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The percentage of upper secondary teachers younger than 30 is especially high. (13.1 %, rank 4/39 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The percentage of primary to upper secondary teachers younger than 30 is especially high. (18.9 %, rank 2/39 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The percentage of female teachers under 30 in lower secondary education is especially low in Japan. (44 %, rank 36/36 , 2023) Download Indicator

    In Japan, the share of female teachers younger than 30 in tertiary education is relatively small . (47.2 %, rank 31/36 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Females aged 50 or more represent a small proportion of teachers in primary education in Japan. (68.1 %, rank 37/39 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The percentage of female teachers aged 50 or more in lower secondary education is especially low in Japan. (44.9 %, rank 35/36 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The percentage of female teachers aged 50 or more in tertiary education is especially low in Japan. (28.4 %, rank 36/36 , 2023) Download Indicator

    In Japan, the share of tertiary teachers older than 50 is relatively high, compared to other countries with data available. (49.7 %, rank 4/34 , 2023) Download Indicator

    In Japan, the share of bachelor's, master's and doctoral level teachers younger than 30 is relatively low, compared to other countries with data available. (1.6 %, rank 30/33 , 2023) Download Indicator

    In Japan, the share of tertiary teachers younger than 30 is relatively low, compared to other countries with data available. (2.5 %, rank 31/34 , 2023) Download Indicator

    In Japan, the share of bachelor's, master's and doctoral level female teachers older than 50 is relatively low, compared to other countries with data available. (23.6 %, rank 35/35 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The percentage of teachers aged 50 or more in pre-primary education is especially low in Japan (14.1 %, rank 33/34 , 2023) Download Indicator

    In Japan, the percentage of teachers under 30 in pre-primary education is one of the highest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (44.5 %, rank 1/34 , 2023) Download Indicator

    In Japan, the percentage of teachers aged between 30 and 49 in pre-primary education is one of the lowest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (41.4 %, rank 34/34 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Teachers' salaries

    In Japan, the change in statutory primary education teachers' salaries with 15 years of experience, based on most prevalent qualifications at different points in teachers' careers is relatively small. (93 Index, rank 29/33 , 2023) Download Indicator

    In Japan, the change in statutory lower secondary education teachers' salaries with 15 years of experience, based on most prevalent qualifications at different points in teachers' careers is relatively small. (93 Index, rank 28/33 , 2023) Download Indicator

    In Japan, the change in statutory upper secondary education teachers' salaries with 15 years of experience, based on most prevalent qualifications at different points in teachers' careers is relatively small. (93 Index, rank 28/33 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The change in statutory pre-primary teachers' salaries with 15 years of experience, based on most prevalent qualifications at different points in their careers is comparatively small in Japan. (93 Index, rank 29/33 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Teachers' salaries progression

    The salary progression from the start to the top of the salary scale for a lower secondary school teacher is among the most rewarding among OECD and partner countries with available data. (1.91 Ratio, rank 7/42 , 2023) Download Indicator

    It takes lower secondary teachers longer to progress through the salary scale in Japan compared to other OECD and partner countries. (36 Years, rank 5/35 , 2023) Download Indicator

    In lower secondary education, the salary ratio of teachers with maximum qualifications at the top of the salary scale to those with minimum training and starting salaries is comparatively high. (1.91 Ratio, rank 6/42 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Ratio of student to teaching staff

    In Japan, the number of students per teacher in public upper secondary education is one of the lowest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (10 Ratio, rank 34/42 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Organisation of the education system

    Classes are particularly large in primary schools. (27 Students, rank 2/35 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The number of instruction days per year for lower secondary students is one of the highest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (202 Days, rank 2/44 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The number of instruction days per year for primary students is one of the highest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (202 Days, rank 2/44 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Classes in public primary institutions are comparatively large in Japan. (27 Students, rank 3/37 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Classes in in private primary institutions are comparatively large in Japan. (28 Students, rank 2/35 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Classes in lower secondary public institutions are comparatively large in Japan. (32 Students, rank 1/35 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Classes in lower secondary private institutions are comparatively large in Japan. (33 Students, rank 1/34 , 2023) Download Indicator

    In Japan, classes in primary education are comparatively large. (27 Students, rank 2/35 , 2023) Download Indicator

    In independent private institutions at lower secondary level, classes are one of the largest in Japan among OECD and partner countries with available data. (33 Students, rank 1/20 , 2023) Download Indicator


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    General findings
    
                        
    
                            
    
                                
      In the 2023 Survey of Adult Skills, literacy is defined as "accessing, understanding, evaluating, and reflecting on written texts in order to achieve one's goals, to develop one's knowledge and potential, and to participate in society" (Rouet et al., 2021). Proficiency in literacy is crucial for adults across their personal, social and professional spheres, given the prevalence of written communication in various aspects of life. Throughout the day, adults engage in a diverse range of reading activities, spanning from delving into extensive pieces of continuous text to swiftly scanning pages for pertinent information. Examples include reading emails, leaflets, timetables and instruction manuals.
    
                            
    
                            
    
                                | Education policies: Adult competencies | 
    
                            
    
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      In the 2023 Survey of Adult Skills, numeracy encompasses "accessing, using, and reasoning critically with mathematical content, information and ideas represented in multiple ways in order to engage in and manage the mathematical demands of a range of situations in adult life" (Tout et al., 2021). The skills and knowledge needed for work and civic participation, and in more personal spheres of life, have changed. Individuals are presented with ever-increasing amounts of information of a quantitative or mathematical nature through online or technology-based resources, which have to be located, selected or filtered, interpreted, and at times questioned and doubted, and analysed for their relevance to the responses needed.
    
                            
    
                            
    
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      The first cycle of the Survey of Adult Skills measured problem solving in technology-rich environments. This is defined as the ability to use digital technology, communication tools and networks to acquire and evaluate information, communicate with others and perform practical tasks. The survey assessed adults' ability to solve problems by establishing appropriate goals and plans, and accessing and using information through computers and computer networks.


      
In the 2023 Survey of Adult Skills, problem solving in technology-rich environments was replaced by adaptive problem solving (APS). This involves "the capacity to achieve one’s goals in a dynamic situation in which a method for solution is not immediately available. It requires engaging in cognitive and metacognitive processes to define the problem, search for information, and apply a solution in a variety of information environments and contexts" (Greiff et al., 2021).


      
APS has three important features. First, it emphasises individuals’ capacity to flexibly and dynamically adapt their problem-solving strategies to a dynamically changing environment. Second, it tests their ability to identify and select among a range of available physical, social and digital resources. Third, individuals need to monitor and reflect on their progress in solving problems, through metacognitive processes.
    
                            
    
                            
    
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            Diagram of funding flows - Japan
            
    
            
    
        
    


        
		
    
            
    
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            Country Reviews for Japan
            
    
            
    
			
    
        
    
		
              
              
              
              
              
        
    
            Note: These values should be interpreted with care since they are influenced by countries' specific contexts and trade-offs. In education, there is often no simple
            most- or least-efficient model. For instance, the share of private expenditure in education must be read against other measures designed to mitigate inequities, 
			such as loans and grants; longer learning time is an opportunity to convey more and better content to students, but may hinder investments in other important
            areas. If you want further information on the nature of different variables, please take the time to read the analysis and contextual information, available at the website
            for each publication.
    
            All rankings for individual variables are compiled on the basis of OECD and G20 countries for which data are available. The OECD average includes only OECD countries which are listed here: https://www.oecd.org/en/about/members-partners.html
            

    
			Reference years displayed in the Education GPS correspond to the most common year of reference among countries for which data is available on each variable. Data for the latest available year is preferred and some 
			countries may have provided data refering to a more recent or late year. To know more about possible exceptions on data please click on the "Download Indicator" link on each variable. When a year of reference corresponds to a school year encompassing two years, the reference reads as follows: 2026 for school year 2025/2026.
			

    
	    *TALIS averages are based on all countries participating in the TALIS survey, including partner countries and economies. 
		This explains the difference between the OECD average and the TALIS averages.
		Data from the TALIS survey and Education at a Glance (EAG) may differ. See Annex E of the TALIS technical report and 
		Annex 3 
		of EAG 2024 for more details about the data collections.
            

    
            For additional notes, please refer to annexes in the list of links below the introductory country profile text.