Spain
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Spain
Adult skills (Survey of Adult Skills, PIAAC, 2023)
  • In literacy, 31% of adults (OECD average: 26%) scored at Level 1 or below, meaning they have low literacy proficiency. At Level 1, they can understand short texts and organised lists when information is clearly indicated, find specific information and identify relevant links. Those below Level 1 can at most understand short, simple sentences. At the other end of the spectrum, 4% of adults (OECD average: 12%) scored at Levels 4 or 5 in literacy and are high performers. These adults can comprehend and evaluate long, dense texts across several pages, grasp complex or hidden meanings, and use prior knowledge to understand texts and complete tasks. In literacy, adults aged 55-65 scored 18 points lower than 25-34-year-olds (OECD average: 30 points lower). Skill gaps between older and younger adults could reflect ageing effects (see below), but also differences in the quality and quantity of education and training across generations.
  • In numeracy, 30% of adults (OECD average: 25%) scored at or below Level 1 proficiency. At Level 1, they can do basic maths with whole numbers or money, understand decimals, and find single pieces of information in tables or charts, but may struggle with tasks needing multiple steps (e.g. solving a proportion). Those below Level 1 can add and subtract small numbers. Adults at Levels 4 or 5 are top performers (6% in Spain, 14% on average across OECD countries and economies). They can calculate and understand rates and ratios, interpret complex graphs, and critically evaluate statistical claims.
  • In adaptive problem solving, 35% of adults (OECD average: 29%) scored at or below Level 1 proficiency. Adults at Level 1 can solve simple problems with few variables and little irrelevant information, which do not change as they make progress towards the solution. They struggle with multi-step problems, or those needing monitoring of multiple variables. Adults below Level 1 at most understand very simple problems, typically solved in one step. Some 2% of adults (OECD average: 5%) scored at Level 4. They have a deeper understanding of problems, and can adapt to unexpected changes, even if they require a major re-evaluation of the problem.
  • When considering all three domains jointly, 21% of adults in Spain (OECD average: 18%) scored at the two lowest levels of these proficiency scales.
    • | Country note | Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) | Survey of Adult Skills 2023: Do Adults Have the Skills They Need to Thrive in a Changing World? | The Survey of Adult Skills - Reader's Companion | Understanding Skill Gaps in Firms: Results of the PIAAC Employer Module | Survey of Adult Skills 2023 Data Analysis Manual |

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    The following list displays indicators for which your selected country shows the highest and lowest values among countries. The list can be sorted by level of education or by age group. All rankings are calculated including available data from OECD and partner countries. Find out more about the methodology here.

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    Literacy

    The mean literacy score is low compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (247 PIAAC Score, rank 25/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The percentage of adults scoring high (at Level 2 or 3) in Iiteracy is low compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (4.2 %, rank 26/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The percentage of adults scoring at or below level 1 in Iiteracy is high compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (31.2 %, rank 9/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Numeracy

    The mean numeracy score is low compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (250 PIAAC Score, rank 24/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The percentage of adults scoring high (at Level 2 or 3) in numeracy is low compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (5.9 %, rank 28/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The percentage of adults scoring at or below level 1 in numeracy is high compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (30.3 %, rank 8/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Adaptive problem solving

    The mean score in adaptive problem solving in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) is low compared to other participating countries. (241 PIAAC Score, rank 22/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The percentage of adults scoring high (at Level 4) in adaptive problem solving in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) is low compared to other participating countries. (1.8 %, rank 23/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The percentage of adults scoring low (at or below Level 1) in adaptive problem solving in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) is high compared to other participating countries. (34.7 %, rank 10/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Skills differences between age groups

    The mean score in adaptive problem solving for 16-24 year-olds is low compared to other participating countries. (249 PIAAC Score, rank 24/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean literacy score for young adults (16-24 year-olds) is low compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (257 PIAAC Score, rank 24/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean numeracy score for young adults (16-24 year-olds) is low compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (256 PIAAC Score, rank 24/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Skills differences by gender

    The mean score in adaptive problem solving for men is low compared to other participating countries. (242 PIAAC Score, rank 22/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean score in adaptive problem solving for women is low compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (240 PIAAC Score, rank 23/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean literacy score among men is low compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (248 PIAAC Score, rank 23/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean literacy score among women is low compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (246 PIAAC Score, rank 26/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean numeracy score among men is low compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (255 PIAAC Score, rank 23/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean numeracy score among women is low compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (245 PIAAC Score, rank 24/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Skills differences by level of education

    The mean score in adaptive problem solving for adults with below upper secondary education is high compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (219 PIAAC Score, rank 8/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean score in adaptive problem solving for adults with tertiary education is low compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (259 PIAAC Score, rank 22/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean literacy score for adults without upper secondary education is high compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (218 PIAAC Score, rank 8/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean literacy score for adults with tertiary education is low compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (271 PIAAC Score, rank 23/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean numeracy score for adults with tertiary education is low compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (275 PIAAC Score, rank 24/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Skills by immigrant and language background

    The mean literacy score for native-born adults of native-born parents is low compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (254 PIAAC Score, rank 22/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean numeracy score for native-born adults of foreign-born parents is low compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (244 PIAAC Score, rank 21/24 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Skills by parents' educational attainment

    The mean score in adaptive problem solving for adults whose parents did not attain upper secondary education is high compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (236 PIAAC Score, rank 8/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean score in adaptive problem solving for adults with at least one parent who attained tertiary education is low compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (255 PIAAC Score, rank 26/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean literacy score with at least one parent with tertiary education is low compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (264 PIAAC Score, rank 28/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean numeracy score for adults whose parents had not attained upper secondary education is high compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (243 PIAAC Score, rank 10/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The mean numeracy score with at least one parent with tertiary education is low compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (268 PIAAC Score, rank 27/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Adults' skills

    The percentage of adults scoring at or below level 1 in literacy and/or numeracy is high compared to other countries participating in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC). (24.1 %, rank 8/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Who the teachers are

    The share of teachers younger than 30 in secondary schools is among the smallest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (6.4 %, rank 28/37 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The share of women among teaching staff in pre-primary education is one of the smallest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (92.9 %, rank 32/40 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The share of women among teaching staff is one of the smallest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (65.5 %, rank 30/36 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The percentage of female teachers aged 50 or more in lower secondary education is especially low in Spain. (62 %, rank 29/36 , 2023) Download Indicator

    In Spain, the share of tertiary teachers older than 50 is relatively high, compared to other countries with data available. (47 %, rank 9/34 , 2023) Download Indicator

    In Spain, the share of tertiary teachers younger than 30 is relatively low, compared to other countries with data available. (3.7 %, rank 26/34 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The percentage of teachers under 30 in early childhood educational development is especially low in Spain. (9.2 %, rank 18/19 , 2023) Download Indicator

    In Spain, the percentage of teachers under 30 in pre-primary education is one of the lowest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (9.2 %, rank 28/34 , 2023) Download Indicator

    In Spain, the percentage of teachers aged between 30 and 49 in pre-primary education is one of the highest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (62.8 %, rank 6/34 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The percentage of male teachers in pre-primary education is especially high in Spain. (7.1 %, rank 9/40 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The percentage of teachers under 30 in Spain is one of the lowest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (6.1 %, rank 25/33 , 2023) Download Indicator

    In Spain, the share of upper secondary vocational education teachers aged 50 or more is relatively low, compared to the other countries with available data. (38.9 %, rank 23/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    In Spain, the percentage of teachers aged between 30 and 49 in upper secondary vocational education is one of the highest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (55 %, rank 10/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Teachers' salaries

    After 15 years of experience, a lower secondary teacher with minimum qualification can expect to have one of the highest salaries among OECD and partner countries with available data. (70856 USD Equivalent, rank 9/40 , 2023) Download Indicator

    After 15 years of experience, an upper secondary teacher with minimum qualification can expect to have one of the highest salaries among OECD and partner countries with available data. (70856 USD Equivalent, rank 10/40 , 2023) Download Indicator

    After 15 years of experience, a pre-primary teacher with minimum qualification can expect to have one of the highest salaries among OECD and partner countries with available data. (63225 USD Equivalent, rank 9/33 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Teachers' salaries progression

    Starting salaries for lower secondary teachers with minimum training are especially high. (61074 USD Equivalent, rank 7/44 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Salaries of lower secondary teachers with minimum training after 10 years of experience are especially high. (66506 USD Equivalent, rank 10/40 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Salaries of lower secondary teachers with minimum training at the top of scale are especially high. (87304 USD Equivalent, rank 10/41 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Starting salaries for upper secondary teachers with minimum training are especially high. (61074 USD Equivalent, rank 7/44 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Starting salaries for pre-primary teachers with minimum training are especially high. (54487 USD Equivalent, rank 7/36 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Salaries of pre-primary teachers with minimum training after 10 years of experience are especially high. (59291 USD Equivalent, rank 10/33 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Salaries of pre-primary teachers with minimum training at the top of scale are especially high. (78106 USD Equivalent, rank 9/34 , 2023) Download Indicator

    It takes lower secondary teachers longer to progress through the salary scale in Spain compared to other OECD and partner countries. (39 Years, rank 3/35 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Ratio of student to teaching staff

    The ratio of students to teaching staff at the upper secondary level is especially low. (10 Ratio, rank 34/41 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The ratio of students to teaching staff at the vocational upper secondary level is especially low in Spain. (8.4 Ratio, rank 24/30 , 2023) Download Indicator

    In Spain, the number of students per teacher in public lower secondary education is one of the lowest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (9.7 Ratio, rank 29/38 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The ratio of students to teaching staff at the lower secondary level in private institutions is especially high in Spain. (14.8 Ratio, rank 8/37 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The ratio of students to teaching staff at the lower secondary level in independent private institutions is especially high in Spain. (12.1 Ratio, rank 8/24 , 2023) Download Indicator

    In Spain, the number of students per teacher in private upper secondary education is one of the highest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (14.4 Ratio, rank 10/39 , 2023) Download Indicator

    In Spain, the number of students per teacher in all public secondary education is one of the lowest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (9.3 Ratio, rank 32/39 , 2023) Download Indicator

    In Spain, the number of students per teacher in all private secondary education is one of the highest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (14.6 Ratio, rank 5/36 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The ratio of students to teaching staff at the secondary level in independent private institutions is especially high in Spain. (13.3 Ratio, rank 7/25 , 2023) Download Indicator

    In Spain, the number of students per teacher in public institutions tertiary education is one of the lowest among countries with available data. (10.7 Ratio, rank 31/39 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Organisation of the education system

    Classes in in private primary institutions are comparatively large in Spain. (23 Students, rank 7/35 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Classes in lower secondary private institutions are comparatively large in Spain. (26 Students, rank 4/34 , 2023) Download Indicator


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    General findings
    
                        
    
                            
    
                                
      In the 2023 Survey of Adult Skills, literacy is defined as "accessing, understanding, evaluating, and reflecting on written texts in order to achieve one's goals, to develop one's knowledge and potential, and to participate in society" (Rouet et al., 2021). Proficiency in literacy is crucial for adults across their personal, social and professional spheres, given the prevalence of written communication in various aspects of life. Throughout the day, adults engage in a diverse range of reading activities, spanning from delving into extensive pieces of continuous text to swiftly scanning pages for pertinent information. Examples include reading emails, leaflets, timetables and instruction manuals.
    
                            
    
                            
    
                                | Education policies: Adult competencies | 
    
                            
    
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      In the 2023 Survey of Adult Skills, numeracy encompasses "accessing, using, and reasoning critically with mathematical content, information and ideas represented in multiple ways in order to engage in and manage the mathematical demands of a range of situations in adult life" (Tout et al., 2021). The skills and knowledge needed for work and civic participation, and in more personal spheres of life, have changed. Individuals are presented with ever-increasing amounts of information of a quantitative or mathematical nature through online or technology-based resources, which have to be located, selected or filtered, interpreted, and at times questioned and doubted, and analysed for their relevance to the responses needed.
    
                            
    
                            
    
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      The first cycle of the Survey of Adult Skills measured problem solving in technology-rich environments. This is defined as the ability to use digital technology, communication tools and networks to acquire and evaluate information, communicate with others and perform practical tasks. The survey assessed adults' ability to solve problems by establishing appropriate goals and plans, and accessing and using information through computers and computer networks.


      
In the 2023 Survey of Adult Skills, problem solving in technology-rich environments was replaced by adaptive problem solving (APS). This involves "the capacity to achieve one’s goals in a dynamic situation in which a method for solution is not immediately available. It requires engaging in cognitive and metacognitive processes to define the problem, search for information, and apply a solution in a variety of information environments and contexts" (Greiff et al., 2021).


      
APS has three important features. First, it emphasises individuals’ capacity to flexibly and dynamically adapt their problem-solving strategies to a dynamically changing environment. Second, it tests their ability to identify and select among a range of available physical, social and digital resources. Third, individuals need to monitor and reflect on their progress in solving problems, through metacognitive processes.
    
                            
    
                            
    
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            Diagram of funding flows - Spain
            
    
            
    
        
    


        
		
    
            
    
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            Country Reviews for Spain
            
    
            
    
			
    
        
    
		
              
              
              
              
              
        
    
            Note: These values should be interpreted with care since they are influenced by countries' specific contexts and trade-offs. In education, there is often no simple
            most- or least-efficient model. For instance, the share of private expenditure in education must be read against other measures designed to mitigate inequities, 
			such as loans and grants; longer learning time is an opportunity to convey more and better content to students, but may hinder investments in other important
            areas. If you want further information on the nature of different variables, please take the time to read the analysis and contextual information, available at the website
            for each publication.
    
            All rankings for individual variables are compiled on the basis of OECD and G20 countries for which data are available. The OECD average includes only OECD countries which are listed here: https://www.oecd.org/en/about/members-partners.html
            

    
			Reference years displayed in the Education GPS correspond to the most common year of reference among countries for which data is available on each variable. Data for the latest available year is preferred and some 
			countries may have provided data refering to a more recent or late year. To know more about possible exceptions on data please click on the "Download Indicator" link on each variable. When a year of reference corresponds to a school year encompassing two years, the reference reads as follows: 2026 for school year 2025/2026.
			

    
	    *TALIS averages are based on all countries participating in the TALIS survey, including partner countries and economies. 
		This explains the difference between the OECD average and the TALIS averages.
		Data from the TALIS survey and Education at a Glance (EAG) may differ. See Annex E of the TALIS technical report and 
		Annex 3 
		of EAG 2024 for more details about the data collections.
            

    
            For additional notes, please refer to annexes in the list of links below the introductory country profile text.