Explore the OECD's reports or draw from a wide variety of education indicators and data to construct your own, customised country reports, highlighting the facts, developments and outcomes of your choice.

Country

Germany
Change country

Data profiles:


Germany
Overview of the education system (EAG 2022)
  • Between 2000 and 2021, the share of 25-34 year-olds with tertiary attainment in Germany increased albeit at a slower pace than on average across OECD countries, by 14 percentage points (from 22% in 2000 to 36% in 2021).
  • In Germany, 36% of 25-34 year-olds had a tertiary qualification in 2021 compared to 47% on average across OECD countries.
  • In 2020, 94% of 3-5 year-olds in Germany were enrolled in early childhood education programmes education in Germany, compared to 83% on average across OECD countries. The share of children enrolled in private institutions at pre-primary level was 65%. In 2019, Germany spent USD 12 000 on pre-primary educational institutions, above the OECD average (USD 9 598%), 13% was funded by private sources.
  • In Germany, the share of women among general upper secondary graduates is 54% (OECD average 55%). Men make up 62% of all vocational upper secondary graduates, above the OECD average (55%).
  • The share of part-time students at the tertiary level in Germany is 16%, below the OECD average (22%). Compared to 2013, it has increased by 1 percentage point.
  • In 2019, Germany spent 4.3% of its GDP or a total of USD 14 632 per full-time equivalent student on primary to tertiary educational institutions compared to USD 11 990 on average across OECD countries. Education funding reached USD 19 608 per student at the tertiary level, 43% of which corresponds to expenditure for research and development (R&D).
  • Primary teachers in Germany earn 9.4% less than other tertiary-educated workers, lower secondary (general programme) teachers earn 0.2% less and upper secondary (general programme) teachers 5.2%.
  • Based on official regulations or agreements,annual teaching hours in Germany are 1 755 hours per year at pre-primary level, 691 hours at primary level, 641 hours at lower secondary level (general programmes) and 610 hours at upper secondary level (general programmes).
    • | Education at a Glance 2022 | Country Note | Country Note (in German) | Annexes from Education at a Glance 2022 | OECD Handbook for Internationally Comparative Education Statistics 2018 | OECD Education Policy Outlook: Germany | Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (Federal Ministry of Education an Research) | Kultusministerkonferenz (Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder in the Federal Republic of Germany, in German) | Statistisches Bundesamt (Federal Statistical Office) |
    Profile View

    Select first some countries to compare, choose the charts you wish to display and customise them.

    The following list displays indicators for which your selected country shows the highest and lowest values among countries. The list can be sorted by level of education or by age group. All rankings are calculated including available data from OECD and partner countries. Find out more about the methodology here.

    Show indicators for which your country ranks among the top or bottom: Sort by:

    Attainment

    The level of short-cycle tertiary attainment among 25-34 year-olds is one of the lowest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (0.4 %, rank 29/33 , 2021) Download Indicator

    Attainment by field of education

    The percentage of 25-64 year-olds with tertiary education who studied in the field of business and administration is one of the lowest among OECD countries and partner economies with available data. (7.8 %, rank 16/17 , 2021) Download Indicator

    The percentage of 25-64 year-olds with tertiary education who studied in the field of engineering, manufacturing and construction is one of the highest among OECD countries and partner economies with available data. (26 %, rank 2/31 , 2021) Download Indicator

    The percentage of 25-64 year-olds with tertiary education who studied in the field of health (nursing and associate health fields) is one of the lowest among OECD countries and partner economies with available data. (2.3 %, rank 13/14 , 2021) Download Indicator

    Participation in education

    The share of part-time students in doctoral programmes in Germany is relatively large. (75.8 %, rank 4/32 , 2018) Download Indicator

    The enrolment rate of students aged 17 in post-secondary non-tertiary programmes in Germany is one of the highest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (4.1 %, rank 1/30 , 2020) Download Indicator

    The enrolment rate of students aged 18 in post-secondary non-tertiary programmes in Germany is one of the highest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (7.9 %, rank 2/30 , 2020) Download Indicator

    The enrolment rate of students aged 19 in post-secondary non-tertiary programmes in Germany is one of the highest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (11.4 %, rank 3/30 , 2020) Download Indicator

    The enrolment rate of students aged 19 tertiary programmes in Germany is one of the lowest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (0 %, rank 31/33 , 2020) Download Indicator

    The enrolment rate of students aged 20 in post-secondary non-tertiary programmes in Germany is one of the highest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (12.7 %, rank 2/29 , 2020) Download Indicator

    The enrolment rate of students aged 20 tertiary programmes in Germany is one of the lowest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (0.1 %, rank 30/33 , 2020) Download Indicator

    The enrolment rate of students aged 20 in vocational upper secondary programmes in Germany is one of the highest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (18.3 %, rank 3/37 , 2020) Download Indicator

    The proportion of women among the new entrants in master's programmes in Germany is relatively low compared to other OECD and partner countries. (52.9 %, rank 35/39 , 2020) Download Indicator

    In Germany, the percentage of students enrolled in private institutions at all early childhood education level is comparatively high. (67.1 %, rank 5/36 , 2020) Download Indicator

    Graduation

    The share of first-time short-cycle graduates is relatively low in Germany. (1.4 %, rank 23/27 , 2020) Download Indicator

    In Germany, the share of first-time graduates in vocational programmes at post-secondary non-tertiary level is comparatively small. (93.6 %, rank 21/24 , 2020) Download Indicator

    Graduation by gender

    The share of female graduates from upper secondary general programmes is one of the smallest among OECD countries and partner economies with available data. (46.9 %, rank 39/40 , 2020) Download Indicator

    Among OECD and partner countries with available data, Germany has one of the smallest shares of women graduates from tertiary programmes. (50.8 %, rank 35/35 , 2020) Download Indicator

    In Germany, the share of female tertiary graduates in the field of sciences, technology, engineering and mathematics is one of the largest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (19.2 %, rank 1/37 , 2020) Download Indicator

    The share of male tertiary graduates in the field of science, technology, engineering and mathematics is relatively high in Germany. (52.8 %, rank 1/38 , 2020) Download Indicator

    The share of male tertiary graduates in the field of health and welfare is relatively low in Germany. (4.3 %, rank 39/41 , 2020) Download Indicator

    In Germany, the proportion of female graduates from upper secondary vocational programmes in the field of services is one of the smallest among OECD and partner countries. (42.2 %, rank 33/35 , 2020) Download Indicator

    Graduation by age

    In Germany, the average age of post-secondary non-tertiary graduates from vocational programmes is one of the lowest among OECD and partner countries with available data (24 Years, rank 22/23 , 2020) Download Indicator

    In Germany, the percentage of first-time short-cycle tertiary graduates younger than 30 is relatively low. (59 %, rank 24/28 , 2020) Download Indicator

    Graduation by field of education

    The proportion of female tertiary graduates in health and welfare is one of the lowest among OECD and partner countries. (10.5 %, rank 37/40 , 2020) Download Indicator

    The percentage of tertiary graduates in the field of engineering, manufacturing and construction is one of the highest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (23.2 %, rank 1/40 , 2020) Download Indicator

    The percentage of tertiary graduates in the field of health and welfare is one of the lowest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (7.4 %, rank 36/40 , 2020) Download Indicator

    In Germany, the proportion of upper secondary vocational graduates in the field of business, aministration and law is one of the highest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (31.7 %, rank 3/33 , 2020) Download Indicator

    In Germany, the percentage of post-secondary non-tertiary vocational graduates in the field of services is relatively low. (6.7 %, rank 19/22 , 2020) Download Indicator

    Fields of education

    In Germany, the percentage of new entrants to tertiary education in the field of health and welfare is relatively low. (7 %, rank 35/36 , 2020) Download Indicator

    The percentage of students enrolled in the field of health and welfare among all national tertiary students in Germany is relatively low. (8.8 %, rank 31/35 , 2020) Download Indicator

    In Germany, the share of female among new entrants in doctoral programmes enrolled in the field of information and communication technologies is relatively small. (18.7 %, rank 30/33 , 2020) Download Indicator

    The share of female among new entrants in doctoral programmes enrolled in the field of engineering, manufacturing and construction in Germany is relatively small. (22.2 %, rank 32/35 , 2020) Download Indicator

    In Germany, the share of new entrants in short-cycle tertiary programmes in the field of business, administration and law is relatively small. (0 %, rank 29/31 , 2020) Download Indicator

    In Germany, the share of new entrants in short-cycle tertiary programmes in the field of information and communication technologies is relatively small. (0 %, rank 26/30 , 2020) Download Indicator

    In Germany, the share of women among new entrants in bachelor's programmes in the field of engineering, manufacturing and construction is one of the smallest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (18.6 %, rank 33/36 , 2020) Download Indicator

    The share of female students entering short cycle tertiary programmes in health and welfare in Germany is one of the smallest compared to other OECD countries and partner economies. (56.3 %, rank 30/30 , 2020) Download Indicator

    The share of male students entering short-cycle tertiary programmes in engineering, manufacturing and construction in Germany is one of the smallest compared to other OECD countries and partner economies. (70.4 %, rank 27/30 , 2020) Download Indicator

    In Germany, the percentage of new entrants to doctoral programmes in the field of health and welfare is relatively high, compared to other countries with available data. (27.7 %, rank 4/34 , 2020) Download Indicator

    In Germany, the percentage of new entrants to doctoral programmes in the field of social sciences, journalism and information is relatively low, compared to other countries with available data. (5.8 %, rank 32/34 , 2020) Download Indicator

    Student mobility

    In Germany, the proportion of young men who are neither employed nor in education or training among 15-19 year-olds is comparatively large. (5.8 %, rank 4/80 , 2020) Download Indicator

    The share of international students entering short-cycle tertiary programmes is one of the smallest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (0 %, rank 28/31 , 2020) Download Indicator

    In Germany, the proportion of new international entrants in master's long first degree (LFD) programmes is relatively high. (31.3 %, rank 4/21 , 2020) Download Indicator

    In Germany, the proportion of international graduates among first-time short-cycle tertiary first-time graduates is relatively low. (0 %, rank 22/26 , 2020) Download Indicator

    In Germany, the proportion of international or foreign students enrolled in short-cycle tertiary programmes is one of the smallest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (0 %, rank 31/34 , 2020) Download Indicator

    In Germany, the share of international or foreign students enrolled in short-cycle tertiary programmes among men is relatively low compared to other OECD and partner countries. (0 %, rank 29/33 , 2020) Download Indicator

    In Germany, the share of international or foreign students enrolled in short-cycle tertiary programmes among women is relatively low compared to other OECD and partner countries. (0 %, rank 29/33 , 2020) Download Indicator

    Student mobility by field of education

    The percentage of students enrolled in the field of engineering, manunfacturing and construction among all international or foreign tertiary students in Germany is relatively high. (28.6 %, rank 1/33 , 2020) Download Indicator

    In Germany, the share of students enrolled in the field of science, technology, engineering and mathematics among all international or foreign students is relatively high compared to other OECD and partner countries. (49.5 %, rank 1/33 , 2020) Download Indicator

    In Germany, the share of students enrolled in the field of science, technology, engineering and mathematics among tertiary students is relatively high compared to other OECD and partner countries. (35 %, rank 1/34 , 2020) Download Indicator

    Expenditure in education and national wealth

    In Germany, expenditure on primary educational institutions as a percentage of GDP is comparatively low. (0.7 %, rank 36/36 , 2019) Download Indicator

    Public and private expenditure in education

    In Germany, total public expenditure on primary educational institutions as a percentage of total public expenditure is comparatively low. (1.5 %, rank 42/42 , 2019) Download Indicator

    Teachers

    The number of days of instruction in a school year in lower secondary school is especially high. (193 Days, rank 5/31 , 2021) Download Indicator

    The number of hours per year pre-primary teachers spend teaching in public institutions is comparatively high in Germany. (1755 Hours, rank 1/27 , 2021) Download Indicator

    Who the teachers are

    The share of women among teaching staff in short-cycle tertiary education is one of the smallest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (32.4 %, rank 24/25 , 2020) Download Indicator

    The percentage of female teachers under 30 in lower secondary education is especially high in Germany. (76.9 %, rank 4/35 , 2019) Download Indicator

    In Germany, the share of short-cycle tertiary teachers aged between 30 and 49 is relatively low, compared to other countries with data available. (40.9 %, rank 23/23 , 2019) Download Indicator

    In Germany, the share of short-cycle tertiary teachers older than 50 is relatively high, compared to other countries with data available. (54.7 %, rank 1/23 , 2019) Download Indicator

    In Germany, the share of bachelor's, master's and doctoral level teachers older than 50 is relatively low, compared to other countries with data available. (29.3 %, rank 27/29 , 2019) Download Indicator

    In Germany, the share of tertiary teachers older than 50 is relatively low, compared to other countries with data available. (29.5 %, rank 30/32 , 2019) Download Indicator

    In Germany, the share of bachelor's, master's and doctoral level teachers younger than 30 is relatively high, compared to other countries with data available. (22.9 %, rank 2/29 , 2019) Download Indicator

    In Germany, the share of tertiary teachers younger than 30 is relatively high, compared to other countries with data available. (22.8 %, rank 2/32 , 2019) Download Indicator

    In Germany, the share of short-cycle tertiary female teachers younger than 30 is relatively low, compared to other countries with data available. (30.9 %, rank 21/22 , 2019) Download Indicator

    In Germany, the share of tertiary female teachers younger than 30 is relatively low, compared to other countries with data available. (32.7 %, rank 20/23 , 2019) Download Indicator

    Teachers' salaries

    After 15 years of experience, a lower secondary teacher with minimum qualification can expect to have one of the highest salaries among OECD and partner countries with available data. (92566 USD Equivalent, rank 2/32 , 2021) Download Indicator

    The ratio of lower secondary teachers' salaries to earnings of full-time, full-year workers with tertiary education is one of the highest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (1 Ratio, rank 5/23 , 2021) Download Indicator

    The ratio of upper secondary teachers' salaries to earnings of full-time, full-year workers with tertiary education is one of the highest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (1.05 Ratio, rank 5/23 , 2021) Download Indicator

    The average actual primary teacher's salary among teachers aged between 25-64 is one of the highest per hour of net teaching time among OECD and partner countries with available data. (81429 USD Equivalent, rank 1/25 , 2021) Download Indicator

    The average actual lower secondary teacher's salary among teachers aged between 25-64 is one of the highest per hour of net teaching time among OECD and partner countries with available data. (89722 USD Equivalent, rank 1/25 , 2021) Download Indicator

    The average actual upper secondary teacher's salary among teachers aged between 25-64 is one of the highest per hour of net teaching time among OECD and partner countries with available data. (94580 USD Equivalent, rank 1/25 , 2021) Download Indicator

    After 15 years of experience, a lower secondary teacher with typical qualification can expect to have one of the highest salaries among OECD and partner countries with available data. (92566 USD Equivalent, rank 2/32 , 2021) Download Indicator

    Teachers' salaries progression

    Starting salaries for lower secondary teachers with minimum training are especially high. (77358 USD Equivalent, rank 2/38 , 2021) Download Indicator

    Salaries of lower secondary teachers with minimum training after 10 years of experience are especially high. (88001 USD Equivalent, rank 2/33 , 2021) Download Indicator

    Ratio of student to teaching staff

    The number of pupils per teacher in pre-primary schools is one of the lowest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (9.2 Ratio, rank 34/37 , 2020) Download Indicator

    In Germany, the ratio of students to teaching staff in bachelor's and tertiary advanced research programmes is one of the lowest compared to other OECD and partner countries with available data. (11.7 Ratio, rank 23/27 , 2020) Download Indicator

    Unemployment and educational attainment

    The unemployment rate among 25-34 year-olds with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education is comparatively low. (3.8 %, rank 38/41 , 2021) Download Indicator

    The unemployment rate among 25-64 year-olds with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education is comparatively low. (3 %, rank 39/42 , 2021) Download Indicator

    Earnings and educational attainment

    In Germany, earnings of 25-64 year-old workers with a bachelor's or equivalent education degree compared to those of workers with upper secondary education are comparatively to other countries high. (166.5 %, rank 4/32 , 2020) Download Indicator

    Compared to other countries with available data, earnings of 25-64 year-olds with below secondary education compared to those of adults with an upper secondary education are relatively high in Germany. (133.4 %, rank 5/29 , 2020) Download Indicator

    Earnings of women (as a percentage of men's earnings) among full- and part-time 25-64 year-olds with tertiary education are one of the lowest among countries with available data. (59.6 %, rank 36/37 , 2020) Download Indicator

    Earnings of women (as a percentage of men's earnings) among 25-64 year-olds with tertiary education are one of the lowest among countries with available data. (68.2 %, rank 35/37 , 2020) Download Indicator

    Earnings by field of education

    Compared to other countries with available data, earnings of tertiary-educated full- and part-time adults in Germany who studied in the field of arts and humanities, social sciences, journalism and information are low, when compared to earnings of adults with an upper secondary education. (69.9 %, rank 13/15 , 2020) Download Indicator

    Compared to other countries with available data, earnings of tertiary-educated adults in Germany who studied in the field of arts and humanities, social sciences, journalism and information are low, when compared to earnings of adults with an upper secondary education. (72 %, rank 13/14 , 2020) Download Indicator

    Compared to other countries with available data, earnings of tertiary-educated full- and part-time adults in Germany who studied in the field of business, administration and law, are low, when compared to earnings of adults with an upper secondary education. (106.8 %, rank 13/17 , 2020) Download Indicator

    Compared to other countries with available data, earnings of tertiary-educated adults in Germany who studied in the field of business, administration and law, are low, when compared to earnings of adults with an upper secondary education. (104.7 %, rank 13/16 , 2020) Download Indicator

    Compared to other countries with available data, earnings of tertiary-educated full- and part-time adults in Germany who studied in the field of education, are low, when compared to earnings of adults with an upper secondary education. (58.1 %, rank 17/17 , 2020) Download Indicator

    Compared to other countries with available data, earnings of tertiary-educated adults in Germany who studied in the field of education, are low, when compared to earnings of adults with an upper secondary education. (72.5 %, rank 12/16 , 2020) Download Indicator

    Compared to other countries with available data, earnings of tertiary-educated full- and part-time adults in Germany who studied in the field of engineering, manufacturing and construction, are high, when compared to earnings of adults with an upper secondary education. (136.9 %, rank 1/17 , 2020) Download Indicator

    Compared to other countries with available data, earnings of tertiary-educated adults in Germany who studied in the field of engineering, manufacturing and construction, are high, when compared to earnings of adults with an upper secondary education. (120.4 %, rank 4/16 , 2020) Download Indicator

    Compared to other countries with available data, earnings of tertiary-educated adults in Germany who studied in the field of health and welfare, are high, when compared to earnings of adults with an upper secondary education. (99.8 %, rank 5/16 , 2020) Download Indicator

    Compared to other countries with available data, earnings of tertiary-educated adults in Germany who studied in the field of information and communication technologies (ICT), are low, when compared to earnings of adults with an upper secondary education. (95.6 %, rank 16/16 , 2020) Download Indicator

    Compared to other countries with available data, earnings of tertiary-educated full- and part-time adults in Germany who studied in the field of natural sciences, mathematics and statistics, are low, when compared to earnings of adults with an upper secondary education. (95.8 %, rank 15/16 , 2020) Download Indicator

    Compared to other countries with available data, earnings of tertiary-educated adults in Germany who studied in the field of natural sciences, mathematics and statistics, are low, when compared to earnings of adults with an upper secondary education. (97 %, rank 13/15 , 2020) Download Indicator

    Neither in education nor employed

    The share of unemployed youth neither in formal education nor training among 18-24 year-olds in Germany is one of the lowest among countries with available data. (3 %, rank 35/37 , 2021) Download Indicator

    The share of youth who have been unemployed for at least 3 months but less than a year and not in formal education or training among 18-24 year-olds in Germany is one of the lowest among countries with available data. (1.3 %, rank 22/26 , 2021) Download Indicator

    The share of youth who have been unemployed for less than 3 months and not in formal education or training among 18-24 year-olds in Germany is one of the lowest among countries with available data. (0.9 %, rank 25/27 , 2021) Download Indicator

    The proportion of youth neither employed nor in education or training among 20-24 year-olds in Germany is relatively small. (10.5 %, rank 33/37 , 2021) Download Indicator

    In Germany, the share of men neither employed nor in education among 15-29 year-olds is relatively low. (9 %, rank 34/38 , 2021) Download Indicator

    Among 20-24 year-olds men in Germany, a small share of them are neither employed nor in education or training. (9.6 %, rank 34/37 , 2021) Download Indicator

    The proportion of 18-24 year-olds who are neither employed nor in education or training is comparatively small in Germany. (10 %, rank 33/37 , 2021) Download Indicator

    The percentage of 18-24 year-old men neither employed nor in education or training is one of the lowest among OECD countries and partner economies with available data. (9.7 %, rank 33/37 , 2021) Download Indicator

    Participation in education by gender

    The share of women among tertiary education new entrants is one of the smallest compared to OECD and partner countries with available data. (50.7 %, rank 36/38 , 2020) Download Indicator

    The share of female students entering bachelor's programmes in Germany is relatively small. (48.1 %, rank 37/38 , 2020) Download Indicator


    The data table will display up to six selected countries.
    General findings
    
                        
    
                            
    
                                
    • Tertiary attainment has increased strongly in most OECD countries among 25-34 year olds. The average share of younger adults with a tertiary degree has increased from 27% in 2000 to 48% in 2021.
    • Higher educational attainment leads to better labour-market outcomes including higher wages and higher employment rates.
    • Expenditure on tertiary education accounts for 1.5% of gross domestic product (GDP) on average across OECD countries or 30% of all education funding allocated to educational institutions.
    
                            
    
                            
    
                                | Education policies: Access and Participation - Tertiary | Education policies: Finance and Funding - Tertiary | Education policies: Labour market outcomes - Tertiary | 
    
                            
    
                                Visualisations
    
                            

                            
    
                                Click the arrow sign next to the title:
                                    arrows
                                    to display other variables
                                    
                                
    
                                
                                    
                                
    
                            
    
                            
    
                                Click the arrow sign next to the title:
                                    arrows
                                    to display other variables
                                
    
                                
                                    
                                
    
                            
    
                            
    
                                Click the arrow sign next to the title:
                                    arrows
                                    to display other variables
                                
    
                                
                                    
                                
    
                            
    
                    
            

    
                        
    
                            
    
                                
    • Tertiary attainment has increased strongly in most OECD countries among 25-34 year-olds. The average share of younger adults with a tertiary degree has increased from 27% in 2000 to 48% in 2021. In this age group, the share of individuals with tertiary attainment is 7 percentage points higher than the share of individuals with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment on average across OECD countries. If current trends continue, a tertiary education will be the most common attainment among working-age adults on average across OECD countries within a few years.
    • Higher educational attainment leads to better labour-market outcomes. In 2021, on average, employment rates for tertiary-educated young adults (25-34 year-olds) are 8 percentage points higher than those who have attained upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education and 26 percentage points higher than those who have attained below upper secondary education across OECD countries. 
    • Greater educational attainment yields better earnings and this holds true for higher levels of tertiary attainment in most countries. On average across the OECD, full-time full-year workers who attained short-cycle tertiary education earned 20% more than those with upper secondary attainment in 2020. This earnings advantage increases to 44% among those who attained a bachelor's or equivalent qualification and to 88% among those with a master's or doctoral or equivalent degree.
    
                            
    
                            
    
                                | Education policies: Attainment | Education policies: Labour market outcomes | 
    
                            
    
                                Visualisations
    
                            

                            
    
                                Click the arrow sign next to the title:
                                    arrows
                                    to display other variables
                                    
                                
    
                                
                                    
                                
    
                            
    
                            
    
                                Click the arrow sign next to the title:
                                    arrows
                                    to display other variables
                                
    
                                
                                    
                                
    
                            
    
                            
    
                                Click the arrow sign next to the title:
                                    arrows
                                    to display other variables
                                
    
                                
                                    
                                
    
                            
    
                    
            

    
                        
    
                            
    
                                
    • On average, the vast majority (88%) of children between the age of 3 and 5 are enrolled in early childhood education (ECE) across the OECD. In a few countries, it is also common for younger children between the age of 0 and 2 to participate in ECE and over 50% of children in this age group are enrolled. However, only 27% of under-threes are enrolled in ECE on average across the OECD.
    • In almost all countries with available data, the majority of upper secondary graduates from general programmes are women. Men dominate graduation from vocational programmes in almost three-quarters of the countries.
    • While the average age of first-time graduates from general upper secondary education does not differ much across countries, the difference widens in vocational education, ranging from 16 to 34 years.
    • Around one-fifth of tertiary students are enrolled on a part-time basis, but large differences exist across OECD countries. Studying part-time is especially common in many Nordic countries, Australia, New Zealand and the United States, where more than 30% of students study part-time. However, in some countries like the Czech Republic, and Greece, less than 5% of students study part-time.
    • Students are more likely to cross borders to pursue their studies as they reach more advanced levels of education. Internationally mobile students account for only 7% of bachelor's students, but 17% of master's students and 26% of doctoral students on average in OECD countries.
    
                            
    
                            
    
                                | Education policies: Access and Participation  | 
    
                            
    
                                Visualisations
    
                            

                            
    
                                Click the arrow sign next to the title:
                                    arrows
                                    to display other variables
                                    
                                
    
                                
                                    
                                
    
                            
    
                            
    
                                Click the arrow sign next to the title:
                                    arrows
                                    to display other variables
                                
    
                                
                                    
                                
    
                            
    
                            
    
                                Click the arrow sign next to the title:
                                    arrows
                                    to display other variables
                                
    
                                
                                    
                                
    
                            
    
                    
            

    
                        
    
                            
    
                                
    • Total public spending on education (from primary to tertiary level) averages 10.6% of total government expenditure across OECD countries, from around 7% to 17%. The largest share of government funding is devoted to primary and secondary levels, explained by near-universal enrolment rates at those levels of education and the greater contribution of private sources at tertiary level.
    • On average across OECD countries, expenditure on primary education amounts to 30% of the funding for educational institutions, while secondary education accounts for 39%.
    • In 2019, OECD countries spent an average of USD 17 559 per student per year at the tertiary level. However, this average is driven up by high values in a few countries, reaching over USD 25 000 in Luxembourg, Norway, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the United States.
    • On average across OECD countries, 63% of total expenditure on tertiary educational institutions goes to core services (e.g. teachers' salaries, school buildings, teaching materials and administration), 33% on research and development activities, and 4% on ancillary services (e.g. meals and transport).
    • Expenditure on tertiary education accounts for 1.5% of gross domestic product (GDP) on average across OECD countries or 30% of all education funding allocated to educational institutions.
    • On average across OECD countries, public funds account for 83% of total spending on educational institutions. Private sources are more important at the tertiary level, where they make up 31% of all expenditure compared to just 10% at the non-tertiary levels (primary, secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary).
    
                            
    
                            
    
                                | Education policies: Finance and Funding | 
    
                            
    
                                Visualisations
    
                            

                            
    
                                Click the arrow sign next to the title:
                                    arrows
                                    to display other variables
                                    
                                
    
                                
                                    
                                
    
                            
    
                            
    
                                Click the arrow sign next to the title:
                                    arrows
                                    to display other variables
                                
    
                                
                                    
                                
    
                            
    
                            
    
                                Click the arrow sign next to the title:
                                    arrows
                                    to display other variables
                                
    
                                
                                    
                                
    
                            
    
                    
            

    
                        
    
                            
    
                                
    • Teachers' actual salaries at pre-primary, primary and general secondary level are 4-14% lower than the earnings of tertiary-educated workers on average across OECD countries and other participants. School heads' actual salaries are substantially higher than those of teachers across primary and secondary education.
    • Teachers in public schools in OECD and partner countries are required to teach on average 987 hours per year at pre-primary level, 784 hours at primary level, 711 hours at lower secondary level (general programmes) and 684 hours at upper secondary level (general and vocational programmes).
    • Typically, the duration of initial teacher education programmes varies from 3 years to 6.5 years, for prospective lower secondary teachers of general subjects. A tertiary qualification is awarded upon completion of the programme in most countries, regardless of the level of education at which the teacher will teach.
    • Continuing professional development is compulsory to some extent for teachers of general subjects at least at one level of education in most countries with data, except Denmark, Italy, the Netherlands and New Zealand. It can be either generally compulsory for all teachers as a regular part of their work, or for some teachers for specific purposes such as promotion or salary increases, or in some cases, both.
    
                            
    
                            
    
                                | Education policies: Teachers | OECD Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS)  | 
    
                            
    
                                Visualisations
    
                            

                            
    
                                Click the arrow sign next to the title:
                                    arrows
                                    to display other variables
                                    
                                
    
                                
                                    
                                
    
                            
    
                            
    
                                Click the arrow sign next to the title:
                                    arrows
                                    to display other variables
                                
    
                                
                                    
                                
    
                            
    
                            
    
                                Click the arrow sign next to the title:
                                    arrows
                                    to display other variables
                                
    
                                
                                    
                                
    
                            
    
                    
            
                
    
            
    
        
    
        
    
            
        
    
        
    
            
        
    

        
        
		
        
		
    
			
    
				Key
            
    
            Diagram of funding flows - Germany
            
    
            
    
        
    


        
		
    
            
    
			Click on the coverpage to see the full OECD iLibrary version
			
    
				Key
            
    
            Country Reviews for Germany
            
    
            
    
			
    
        
    
		
              
              
              
              
              
              
              
        
    
            Note: These values should be interpreted with care since they are influenced
            by countries' specific contexts and trade-offs. In education, there is often no simple
            most- or least-efficient model. For instance, the share of private expenditure in
            education must be read against other measures designed to mitigate inequities, 
			such as loans and grants; longer learning time is an opportunity to convey
            more and better content to students, but may hinder investments in other important
            areas. If you want further information on the nature of different variables, please
            take the time to read the analysis and contextual information, available at the website
            for each publication.
    
            All rankings for individual variables are compiled on the basis of OECD and G20 countries for which data are available. 
            The OECD average includes only OECD countries which are listed here: http://www.oecd.org/about/membersandpartners/
            

    
	    *TALIS averages are based on all countries participating in the TALIS survey, including partner countries and economies. 
		This explains the difference between the OECD average and the TALIS averages.
		Data from the TALIS survey and Education at a Glance (EAG) may differ. See Annex E of the TALIS technical report and 
		Annex 3 
		of EAG 2021 for more details about the data collections.
            

    
			B-S-J-Z (China) refers to the four PISA-participating provinces/municipalities of the People's Republic of China:
Beijing, Shanghai, Jiangsu and Zhejiang.
			

    
            For additional notes, please refer to annexes in the list of links below the introductory country profile text.