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Spain
Overview of the education system (EAG 2024)
  • Tertiary education has become the most common level of education among 25-34 year olds in Spain. The share of 25-34 year olds with tertiary education has increased from 41% in 2016 to 52% in 2023. At the other end of the educational attainment spectrum, 26% of 25-34 year olds in Spain still have not completed upper secondary education, which is a substantial decline from 2016, when the share was 35%, but still above the OECD average of 14%.
  • In Spain, 30% of children under 2 years old are enrolled in early childhood education and care, compared to an OECD average of 18%. By age 2, 64% of children in Spain are enrolled, while the OECD average is 42%. Until compulsory education begins at age 6, enrolment rates for children in Spain consistently exceed the OECD average.
  • Across the OECD, the average NEET rate fell from 15.8% to 13.8% between 2016 and 2023. In Spain, the share of NEETs decreased from 23.2% to 17.8%.
  • In Spain, 2.1% of pupils in primary education, 7.8% in lower secondary education and 6.5% in general upper secondary education repeat a grade in their current level of education, which are higher than the OECD averages: 1.5% at primary, 2.2% at lower secondary and 3.2% at general upper secondary level.
  • Spain spends 4.9% of its gross domestic product (GDP) on educational institutions from primary to tertiary level. This is in line with the OECD average of 4.9% of GDP. In Spain, 88% of total expenditure on primary institutions comes from public sources, which is below the OECD average of 93%.
  • In real terms (adjusted for inflation), teachers' salaries increased by 2% over the eight-year period, compared to an average increase of 4% in countries where data is available.
    • | Education at a Glance 2024 | Country note | Annexes from Education at a Glance 2024 | OECD Handbook for Internationally Comparative Education Statistics 2018 | OECD Education Policy Outlook: Spain | Ministerio de Educación, y Formación Personal (Ministry of Education and Vocational Training, in Spanish ) | Instituto Nacional de Estadística (National Statistics Institute) |
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    The following list displays indicators for which your selected country shows the highest and lowest values among countries. The list can be sorted by level of education or by age group. All rankings are calculated including available data from OECD and partner countries. Find out more about the methodology here.

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    Attainment

    The level of upper secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary attainment among 25-34 year-olds is one of the lowest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (22.3 %, rank 44/45 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The level of upper secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary attainment among 25-64 year-olds is one of the lowest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (22.7 %, rank 42/46 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The level of short-cycle tertiary attainment among 25-34 year-olds is one of the highest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (15.7 %, rank 4/33 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Attainment by gender

    The proportion of 25-64 year-old men who have attained a vocational degree at the upper secondary or post-secondary level is one of the lowest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (10.1 %, rank 32/36 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The share of 25-34 year-old men who attained upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education in Spain is one of the lowest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (23.8 %, rank 44/45 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The share of 25-34 year-old women who attained upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education in Spain is one of the lowest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (20.7 %, rank 42/45 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The share of 25-34 year-old men who attained upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education in Spain is one of the lowest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (23 %, rank 43/46 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The share of 25-64 year-old women who attained upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education in Spain is one of the lowest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (22.5 %, rank 42/46 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Spain has one of the largest share of women among 55-64 year-olds with a vocational upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education. (56.3 %, rank 2/36 , 2023) Download Indicator

    In Spain, the proportion of 25-34 year-old men who have attained a short cycle tertiary degree is one of the highest among OECD and partner countries with available data (17.6 %, rank 3/31 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Entrance

    In Spain, the share of first-time entrants in bachelor's programmes is one of the smallest among OECD countries and partner economies with available data. (48.1 %, rank 31/33 , 2022) Download Indicator

    Entrance by field of education and gender

    In Spain, the share of female among new entrants in doctoral programmes enrolled in the field of education is relatively small. (60 %, rank 32/35 , 2022) Download Indicator

    The share of female students entering master's or equivalent programmes in education in Spain is one of the smallest compared to other OECD countries and partner economies. (63.4 %, rank 37/39 , 2022) Download Indicator

    The share of female students entering short cycle tertiaryprogrammes in natural sciences, mathematics and statistics in Spain is one of the smallest compared to other OECD countries and partner economies. (17.3 %, rank 23/23 , 2022) Download Indicator

    The share of male students entering master's or equivalent programmes in engineering, manufacturing and construction in Spain is one of the smallest compared to other OECD countries and partner economies. (59.6 %, rank 36/39 , 2022) Download Indicator

    Participation in education

    The share of students enrolled in school- and work-based programmes among all upper secondary students enrolled in vocational programmes is one of the smallest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (2.6 %, rank 24/24 , 2022) Download Indicator

    The enrolment rate of students aged 18 tertiary programmes in Spain is one of the highest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (10.7 %, rank 5/35 , 2022) Download Indicator

    The enrolment rate of students aged 19 tertiary programmes in Spain is one of the highest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (16.8 %, rank 4/35 , 2022) Download Indicator

    The enrolment rate of students aged 20 tertiary programmes in Spain is one of the highest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (14.9 %, rank 3/35 , 2022) Download Indicator

    (100 %, rank 1/30 , 2022) Download Indicator

    The average age of post-secondary non-tertiary students enrolled in vocational programmes in Spain is among the highest. (36.1 %, rank 2/27 , 2022) Download Indicator

    (3.5 %, rank 13/17 , 2022) Download Indicator

    The share of vocational students as a share of short-cycle tertiary students is among the largest in all OECD and partner countries. (100 %, rank 1/34 , 2022) Download Indicator

    Short-cycle tertiary students represent a large share of all vocational students, compared to other OECD and partner countries with available data. (40.1 %, rank 5/32 , 2022) Download Indicator

    The enrolment rate among students aged 15-19 in short-cycle tertiary programmes in Spain is one of the highest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (5.5 %, rank 5/35 , 2022) Download Indicator

    The enrolment rate among students aged 20-24 in short-cycle tertiary programmes in Spain is one of the highest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (9.1 %, rank 2/35 , 2022) Download Indicator

    (0.2 %, rank 5/39 , 2022) Download Indicator

    Graduation

    In Spain, the average age of post-secondary non-tertiary graduates from vocational programmes is one of the highest among OECD and partner countries with available data (36.2 Years, rank 4/25 , 2022) Download Indicator

    The share of long first degree master's graduates in public institutions is relatively low in Spain. (74.5 %, rank 21/25 , 2022) Download Indicator

    The percentage of first-time bachelor's graduates is relatively low in Spain. (44.1 %, rank 33/34 , 2022) Download Indicator

    The average age of master's or equivalent graduates in Spain is among the oldest. (30.1 Years, rank 3/24 , 2022) Download Indicator

    Graduation by gender

    The share of female graduates from upper secondary general programmes is one of the largest among OECD countries and partner economies with available data. (53 %, rank 5/43 , 2022) Download Indicator

    Among OECD and partner countries with available data, Spain has one of the smallest shares of women graduates from tertiary programmes. (55.4 %, rank 30/34 , 2022) Download Indicator

    Graduation by field of education

    In Spain, the proportion of upper secondary vocational graduates in the field of engineering, manufacturing and construction is one of the lowest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (15.2 %, rank 34/36 , 2022) Download Indicator

    In Spain, the proportion of upper secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary vocational graduates in the field of arts and humanities is one of the largest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (26.6 %, rank 2/36 , 2022) Download Indicator

    In Spain, the proportion of upper secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary vocational graduates in the field of STEM is one of the lowest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (22.9 %, rank 34/36 , 2022) Download Indicator

    Graduation by field of education and gender

    The proportion of female tertiary graduates in education is one of the highest among OECD and partner countries. (20.6 %, rank 5/42 , 2022) Download Indicator

    The share of male tertiary graduates in the field of education is relatively high in Spain. (9.9 %, rank 5/42 , 2022) Download Indicator

    In Spain, the percentage of female post-secondary non-tertiary graduates in the field of health and welfare is relatively small. (69.5 %, rank 21/23 , 2022) Download Indicator

    In Spain, the proportion of female graduates from upper secondary vocational programmes in the field of services is one of the smallest among OECD and partner countries. (43.9 %, rank 34/38 , 2022) Download Indicator

    In Spain, the share of female graduates in tertiary education in the fields of information and communication technologies is one of the smallest among OECD countries and partner economies with available data. (13.5 %, rank 39/41 , 2022) Download Indicator

    Student mobility

    In Spain, international or foreign students from Latin America and the Caribbean are most represented among all international or foreign students, compared to other OECD and partner countries with available data. (45.5 %, rank 5/43 , 2022) Download Indicator

    In Spain, the proportion of international graduates among bachelor's first-time graduates is relatively low. (2.1 %, rank 29/32 , 2022) Download Indicator

    In Spain, the proportion of international or foreign students enrolled in bachelor's programmes is one of the smallest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (1.9 %, rank 37/41 , 2022) Download Indicator

    In Spain, the share of international or foreign students enrolled in bachelor's programmes among men is relatively low compared to other OECD and partner countries. (2 %, rank 37/40 , 2022) Download Indicator

    In Spain, the share of international or foreign students enrolled in bachelor's programmes among women is relatively low compared to other OECD and partner countries. (1.9 %, rank 37/40 , 2022) Download Indicator

    Student mobility by field of education

    In Spain, the share of international and foreign students among all students in the field of arts and humanities is one of the smallest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (3.4 %, rank 35/39 , 2022) Download Indicator

    In Spain, the share of international and foreign students among all students in the field of information and communication technologies is one of the smallest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (1.9 %, rank 34/38 , 2022) Download Indicator

    Expenditure in education and national wealth

    In Spain, international expenditure on educational institutions as a percentage of GDP on primary, secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary education from final source of funds is relatively high. (0 %, rank 4/33 , 2021) Download Indicator

    In Spain, the private expenditure as a percentage of GDP from initial source of funds on primary to post-secondary non-tertiary level is high. (0.4 %, rank 5/27 , 2021) Download Indicator

    The proportion of private expenditure as a percentage of GDP from initial source of funds for primary to tertiary education is comparatively high in Spain. (0.8 %, rank 4/27 , 2021) Download Indicator

    Nature of expenditure

    In Spain, the share of capital expenditure on primary education is one of the smallest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (3.5 %, rank 30/33 , 2021) Download Indicator

    In Spain, the share of capital expenditure on all levels below tertiary education is one of the smallest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (3.6 %, rank 32/33 , 2021) Download Indicator

    In Spain, the share of current expenditure on all levels below tertiary education is one of the largest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (96.4 %, rank 2/33 , 2021) Download Indicator

    In Spain, the share of capital expenditure on secondary education is one of the smallest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (3.6 %, rank 29/31 , 2021) Download Indicator

    Who the teachers are

    The percentage of teachers under 30 in early childhood educational development is especially low in Spain. (9.6 %, rank 19/20 , 2022) Download Indicator

    Teachers' salaries progression

    It takes lower secondary teachers longer to progress through the salary scale in Spain compared to other OECD and partner countries. (39 Years, rank 5/32 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Migrant background

    The percentage of native-born aged between 25 and 64 who attained upper secondary or post-secondary non tertiary education is one of the lowest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (21 %, rank 33/34 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The percentage of foreign-born aged between 15 and 29 who are neither employed nor in education and training is one of the highest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (26.5 %, rank 4/28 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The share of 25-64 year-old foreign-borns who attained upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education and who arrived in Spain by the age of 15 is one of the lowest among OECD and partner countries with available data (29 %, rank 24/27 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The share of 25-64 year-old foreign-borns who attained tertiary education and who arrived in Spain at 16 or older, is one of the lowest among OECD and partner countries with available data (27.3 %, rank 25/27 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The earnings of foreign-born workers as a percentage of native-born workers (among 25-64 years-old with below upper secondary attainment) are one of the lowest among countries with availaible data (76.9 %, rank 17/18 , 2022) Download Indicator

    The earnings of foreign-born workers as a percentage of native-born workers (among 25-64 years-old with upper secondary or post-secondary non-teritary attainment) are one of the lowest among countries with availaible data (65.6 %, rank 18/18 , 2022) Download Indicator

    The earnings of foreign-born workers as a percentage of native-born workers (among 25-64 years-old with tertiary attainment) are one of the lowest among countries with availaible data (74.4 %, rank 18/19 , 2022) Download Indicator

    The earnings of foreign-born workers as a percentage of native-born workers (among 25-34 years-old with tertiary attainment who arrived at the country by the age of 15) are one of the lowest among countries with availaible data (75.8 %, rank 12/12 , 2022) Download Indicator

    The earnings of foreign-born workers as a percentage of native-born workers (among 25-34 years-old with tertiary attainment who arrived in the country at age 16-64) are one of the lowest among countries with availaible data (83.8 %, rank 14/15 , 2022) Download Indicator

    Ratio of student to teaching staff

    In Spain, the number of students per teacher in public upper secondary education is one of the lowest among OECD and partner countries with available data. (9 Ratio, rank 40/43 , 2022) Download Indicator

    In Spain, the number of students per teacher in public institutions short-cycle tertiary education is one of the lowest among countries with available data. (9.4 Ratio, rank 19/23 , 2022) Download Indicator

    In Spain, the number of students per teacher in independent private short-cycle tertiary education is one of the lowest among countries with available data. (15.7 Ratio, rank 7/10 , 2022) Download Indicator

    Organisation of the education system

    Classes in lower secondary private institutions are comparatively large in Spain. (26 Students, rank 4/36 , 2022) Download Indicator

    In independent private institutions at lower secondary level, classes are one of the largest in Spain among OECD and partner countries with available data. (23 Students, rank 5/23 , 2022) Download Indicator

    Employment and educational attainment

    The employment rate among 25-64 year-olds with a master's or equivalent tertiary education degree is low compared to other OECD and partner countries. (86.2 %, rank 39/41 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The employment rate among 45-54 year-olds with a vocational upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education is relatively low compared to other OECD and partner countries. (77.3 %, rank 32/35 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Employment by gender and educational attainment

    The employment rate among 25-64 year-old men with tertiary education is comparatively low. (87 %, rank 43/46 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The employment rate among 25-34 year-old men with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education is compartively low in Spain. (74.1 %, rank 43/45 , 2023) Download Indicator

    In Spain, the employment rate among 25-34 year-old men with vocational upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education is comparatively low (79.6 %, rank 36/36 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Compared to other countries with available data, the employment rate of 25-34 year-old men with general upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education is relatively low in Spain. (68.2 %, rank 37/39 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Unemployment and educational attainment

    The unemployment rate among 25-34 year-olds with below upper secondary education is comparatively high. (22.2 %, rank 3/42 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The unemployment rate among 25-34 year-olds with tertiary education is comparatively high. (9.2 %, rank 5/45 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The unemployment rate among 25-64 year-olds without upper secondary education is comparatively high. (16.5 %, rank 3/45 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The unemployment rate among 25-64 year-olds with tertiary education is comparatively high. (6.8 %, rank 5/46 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The unemployment rate among 25-64 year-olds with a bachelor's or equivalent tertiary education degree is one of the highest of all OECD countries and partner economies for which data are available. (7.3 %, rank 5/43 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The unemployment rate among 25-64 year-olds with a master's or equivalent tertiary education degree is one of the highest of all OECD countries and partner economies for which data are available. (5.4 %, rank 1/39 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The unemployment rate among 25-64 year-olds with a doctoral or equivalent tertiary education degree is one of the highest of all OECD countries and partner economies for which data are available. (3.3 %, rank 1/13 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The unemployment rate among 25-64 year-olds with a vocational upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education is high compared to other OECD and partner countries. (11.6 %, rank 2/35 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The unemployment rate among 25-64 year-olds with a general upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education is high compared to other OECD and partner countries. (11.5 %, rank 1/36 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The unemployment rate among 25-34 year-olds with a vocational upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education is one of the highest of all OECD countries and partner economies for which data are available. (15 %, rank 2/34 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The unemployment rate among 25-34 year-olds with a general upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education is one of the highest of all OECD countries and partner economies for which data are available. (17 %, rank 2/36 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Compared to other countries with available data, the unemployment rate of 25-34 year-olds with a bachelor's or equivalent tertiary education degree is relatively high in Spain. (10.2 %, rank 5/41 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Compared to other countries with available data, the unemployment rate of 25-34 year-old with a master's or equivalent tertiary education degree is relatively high in Spain. (7.2 %, rank 4/37 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Compared to other countries with available data, the unemployment rate of 25-34 year-old with a short cycle tertiary education degree is relatively high in Spain. (10.4 %, rank 2/22 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Unemployment by gender and educational attainment

    The unemployment rate among 25-34 year-old men with below upper secondary education is compartively high in Spain. (18.7 %, rank 5/40 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The unemployment rate among 25-34 year-old men with tertiary education is compartively high in Spain. (7.9 %, rank 5/42 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The unemployment rate among 25-34 year-old women with below upper secondary education is compartively high in Spain. (28.4 %, rank 3/40 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The unemployment rate among 25-34 year-old women with tertiary education is compartively high in Spain. (10.2 %, rank 5/44 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The employment rate among 25-34 year-old men with vocational upper secondary or a post-secondary non-tertiary education is comparatively high. (14.4 %, rank 1/33 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The employment rate among 25-34 year-old women with vocational upper secondary or a post-secondary non-tertiary education is comparatively high. (15.9 %, rank 4/32 , 2023) Download Indicator

    In Spain, the share of unemployed 25-64 year-old women with general upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education is relatively high, compared to other OECD and partner countries with available data. (13.7 %, rank 3/35 , 2023) Download Indicator

    In Spain, the share of unemployed 25-64 year-old men with general upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education is relatively high, compared to other OECD and partner countries with available data. (9.5 %, rank 1/35 , 2023) Download Indicator

    In Spain, the share of unemployed 25-64 year-old women with vocational upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education is relatively high, compared to other OECD and partner countries with available data. (14 %, rank 3/34 , 2023) Download Indicator

    In Spain, the share of unemployed 25-64 year-old men with vocational upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education is relatively high, compared to other OECD and partner countries with available data. (9.5 %, rank 1/33 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Compared to other countries with available data, the unemployment rate of 25-34 year-old women with general upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education is relatively high in Spain. (18.8 %, rank 3/32 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Compared to other countries with available data, the unemployment rate of 25-34 year-old men with general upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education is relatively high in Spain. (15.4 %, rank 1/33 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Inactivity and educational attainment

    The inactivity rate of 25-34 years-old adults with below upper secondary education is low in Spain. (19.1 %, rank 40/44 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Inactivity by gender and educational attainment

    In Spain, the inactivity rate of 25-34 year-old women without an upper secondary education is relatively low. (29 %, rank 40/44 , 2023) Download Indicator

    Earnings and educational attainment

    The share of 25-64 year-old workers with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education earning more than twice the overall median in Spain is one of the highest among countries with available data. (10 Index, rank 5/40 , 2022) Download Indicator

    The share of 25-64 year-old workers with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education earning at or below half the overall median in Spain is one of the highest among countries with available data. (26 Index, rank 4/41 , 2022) Download Indicator

    The share of 25-64 year-old workers with tertiary education earning at or below half the overall median in Spain is one of the highest among countries with available data. (15 Index, rank 4/40 , 2022) Download Indicator

    Earnings, gender and educational attainment

    Earnings of women as a percentage of men's earnings (25-34 year-olds with vocational upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education working full-time full-year) are one of the lowest among countries with available data. (74.1 %, rank 25/27 , 2021) Download Indicator

    Earnings of women as a percentage of men's earnings (45-54 year-olds with vocational upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education working full-time full-year) are one of the lowest among countries with available data. (72.5 %, rank 24/28 , 2021) Download Indicator

    Neither in education nor employed

    The share of unemployed youth neither in formal education nor training among 18-24 year-olds in Spain is one of the highest among countries with available data. (9.5 %, rank 4/42 , 2023) Download Indicator

    The share of men with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education neither in employment nor in education and training (25-29 year-olds) in Spain is relatively high. (23 %, rank 2/40 , 2022) Download Indicator

    The share of men with tertiary education neither in employment nor in education and training (25-29 year-olds) in Spain is relatively high. (15 %, rank 4/33 , 2022) Download Indicator

    The share of women who are unemployed NEET (15-29 year-olds) in Spain is relatively high. (8.3 %, rank 5/42 , 2022) Download Indicator

    The share of men who are unemployed NEET (15-29 year-olds) in Spain is relatively high. (9.5 %, rank 2/42 , 2022) Download Indicator

    The share of men who are unemployed NEET (18-24 year-olds) in Spain is relatively high. (10.3 %, rank 3/42 , 2022) Download Indicator

    The share of unemployed NEET (15-29 year-olds) in Spain is relatively high. (8.9 %, rank 4/42 , 2022) Download Indicator

    In Spain, the share of men neither employed nor in education among 15-29 year-olds is relatively high. (16.3 %, rank 4/42 , 2022) Download Indicator

    Among 25-29 year-old men in Spain, a large share of them are neither employed nor in education or training. (21.5 %, rank 2/42 , 2022) Download Indicator


    The data table will display up to six selected countries.
    General findings
    
                        
    
                            
    
                                
    • Educational and labour-market outcomes for young adults at risk of falling behind have improved. Since 2016, the share of 18-24 year-olds not in employment, education or training has fallen from 16% to 14% on average across the OECD. At the same time, the share of 25-34 year-olds without an upper secondary qualification has decreased from 17% to 14%.

    • Job opportunities have also improved: the employment rate among 25-34 year-olds without an upper secondary qualification has risen from 59% to 61%, and for those with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment, it has increased from 76% to 79%.

    • Educational outcomes are transmitted across generations. Inequalities start early and persist through all stages of the education system. In countries with available data, children from low-income families are on average 18 percentage points less likely to be enrolled in early childhood education and care before the age of 3.

    • Students who start an upper secondary programme are 19 percentage points less likely to successfully complete their studies if their parents have not attained upper secondary education than their peers with parents who have a tertiary qualification, and this gap is 13 percentage points for those starting a bachelor’s programmes.

    • These disadvantages result in very different levels of educational attainment. While 72% of adults who have at least one parent with a tertiary qualification have also obtained a tertiary qualification, only 19% of those whose parents have not completed upper secondary education have tertiary attainment.

    • Public expenditure on early childhood education measured as a share of gross domestic product (GDP) increased by 9% between 2015 and 2021, significantly more than for other levels of education. Enrolment rates in early childhood education have also continued to rise across all age groups. On average across the OECD, 83% of children aged 3-5 are enrolled in pre-primary education, up from 79% in 2013.
    
                            
    
                            
    
                                | Equity in education and on the labour market | Education policies: Equity | Education policies: Gender | Education policies: Socio-economic status | Education policies: Migrant background | 
    
                            
    
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    • 	In almost all countries with available data, the share of younger adults (25-34 year-olds) without an upper secondary qualification has fallen since 2016 and for Costa Rica, Mexico, Portugal and Türkiye these declines have been in double digits in percentage-point terms. This means many more younger adults will have the opportunity to succeed in the labour market.

    • 	On average across OECD countries, the share of women with at least a bachelor's or equivalent degree has almost doubled in a generation: going from 24% among 55-64 year-olds to 47% among 25-34 year-olds, reflecting a substantial increase in educational attainment.

    • 	In most OECD countries, the share of 18-24 year-olds who are neither employed nor in formal education or training (NEET) has decreased between 2016 and 2023. Costa Rica and Lithuania are exceptions, having experienced a rise above 3 percentage points in the share over this period.

    • 	Employment rates for younger adults (25-34 year-olds) slightly improved in most countries between 2016 and 2023, irrespective of their educational attainment level. However, the gap in employment rates between younger adults with below upper secondary attainment and those with tertiary attainment has widened in more than half of OECD, partner and/or accession countries with comparable data for both years.

    • 	In OECD countries, workers who have not attained upper secondary education earn, on average, 18% less than those who have attained this level of education. Meanwhile, workers with a tertiary education earn, on average, 56% more than those with only an upper secondary education.
    
                            
    
                            
    
                                | Education policies: Attainment | Education policies: Labour market outcomes | 
    
                            
    
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    • 	Most children aged 3 to 5 (84%) attend early childhood education (ECE) programmes across the OECD, yet only 32% of those aged 0 to 2 are enrolled in early childhood educational development programmes (ISCED 01) on average. Younger children from low-income families are least likely to attend these programmes, despite being likely to benefit the most.

    • 	Since 2013, 12 countries have extended the length of compulsory education at either pre-primary or upper secondary level. As enrolment rates in the years before and after compulsory education are already generally high, these measures often aim to increase enrolment among disadvantaged groups, where rates are lower.

    • 	The vast majority of primary students are enrolled in public institutions, averaging 85% across OECD countries. In some countries, government-dependent private institutions are prevalent, which often function in similar ways to public institutions.

    • 	Gender disparities at the upper secondary level affect students’ pathways in the labour market and higher education. On average, 51% of graduates from upper secondary general programmes are female, but in vocational programmes female only make up 46% of graduates.

    • 	Family background strongly influences success in upper secondary education. In all countries with available data, students whose parents have lower educational attainment have substantially lower completion rates than students with a tertiary-educated parent. Completion rates for students with immigrant backgrounds are also lower than for non-immigrant students.

    • 	On average, women are over-represented in tertiary education, but they remain under-represented in some fields. Only 15% of female new entrants at tertiary level choose a science, technology, engineering or mathematics (STEM) field, compared to 41% of male new entrants. In contrast, only 4% of male entrants opted for the field of education and 8% for health and welfare, shares which have not changed since 2015.
    
                            
    
                            
    
                                | Education policies: Access and Participation  | 
    
                            
    
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    • 	Expenditure per student increases with the educational level in nearly all OECD countries, although by how much varies substantially among countries. On average, expenditure per student amounts to about USD 11 900 at primary level, USD 13 300 at secondary level and USD 20 500 at tertiary level.

    • 	OECD countries spend, on average, the equivalent of 4.9% of their gross domestic product (GDP) (over USD 3.5 trillion in total) on educational institutions from primary to tertiary levels (including tertiary research and development). Iceland, Israel, Norway and the United Kingdom invest over 6% of their national output into education.

    • 	Private sources play a much more important role in funding tertiary education, relative to government sources, than at lower levels. On average, private sources of funding amount to 0.3% of GDP for primary to post-secondary non-tertiary institutions, with a similar percentage for tertiary institutions. In contrast, government funding amounts to 3.2% of GDP for primary to post-secondary non-tertiary institutions, well above the 1.0% of GDP that governments spend on tertiary institutions.

    • 	On average, across OECD countries, the government is the primary source of funding for both public and private primary schools. For public institutions, the government covers nearly all expenditure, amounting to about USD 11 900 per student, while it accounts for less than 60% of the costs for private ones, roughly USD 7 900 per student, on average. However, these figure vary considerably across countries. 

    • 	Tuition fees for bachelor's degrees vary considerably from country to country. In one-third of the countries and other participants with data, public institutions either offer tuition-free education to national students or charge less than USD 1 100 per year in fees. In another third of countries, annual tuition fees are relatively modest, averaging between USD 1 400 and USD 3 100 per student. In the remaining countries, fees are considerably higher, exceeding USD 4 500 per year.
    
                            
    
                            
    
                                | Education policies: Finance and Funding | 
    
                            
    
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    • 	Between 2013 and 2022, the ratio of children to teaching staff at pre-primary level fell across most countries, from 16:1 to 15:1 on average in OECD countries, due to fewer enrolled children and more teachers. In some countries, however, the ratio has increased due to rising child enrolment and teacher shortages.

    • 	In most OECD countries, the salaries of teachers increase with the level of education they teach. On average across OECD countries and other participants, the salaries of teachers with the most prevalent qualifications with 15 years of experience range from USD 52 631 at pre-primary level to USD 60 803 at upper secondary level.

    • 	Between 2015 and 2023, the statutory salaries of teachers at primary and secondary levels increased by 28-29% in nominal terms on average across OECD countries. When adjusted for changes in prices, the rise in real salaries was much smaller, at 4-5%.

    • 	Based on official regulations or agreements, teachers in public schools in OECD countries and other participants are required to teach on average 1 007 hours per year at pre-primary level, 773 hours at primary level, 706 hours at lower secondary level (general programmes) and 679 hours at upper secondary level (general programmes). 

    • 	Of the 21 countries with available data, 18 reported that they faced teacher shortages at the start of the 2022/23 academic year, with only Greece, Korea and Türkiye not reporting any shortages.

    • 	The ageing of the teaching workforce is more pronounced in secondary schools than in primary education. On average across OECD countries, the share of older teachers (aged 50 and over) increases with the education level: from 34% in primary education to 36% in lower secondary and 41% in upper secondary education.
    
                            
    
                            
    
                                | Education policies: Teachers | Education policies: Teachers | OECD Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS)  | 
    
                            
    
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            Diagram of funding flows - Spain
            
    
            
    
        
    


        
		
    
            
    
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            Country Reviews for Spain
            
    
            
    
			
    
        
    
		
              
              
              
              
              
              
              
        
    
            Note: These values should be interpreted with care since they are influenced
            by countries' specific contexts and trade-offs. In education, there is often no simple
            most- or least-efficient model. For instance, the share of private expenditure in
            education must be read against other measures designed to mitigate inequities, 
			such as loans and grants; longer learning time is an opportunity to convey
            more and better content to students, but may hinder investments in other important
            areas. If you want further information on the nature of different variables, please
            take the time to read the analysis and contextual information, available at the website
            for each publication.
    
            All rankings for individual variables are compiled on the basis of OECD and G20 countries for which data are available. 
            The OECD average includes only OECD countries which are listed here: http://www.oecd.org/about/membersandpartners/
            

    
			Reference years displayed in the Education GPS correspond to the most common year of reference among countries for which data is available on each variable. Data for the latest available year is preferred and some 
			countries may have provided data refering to a more recent or late year. To know more about possible exceptions on data please click on the "Download Indicator" link on each variable. When a year of reference corresponds to a school year encompassing two years, the reference reads as follows: 2018 for school year 2017/2018.  
			

    
	    *TALIS averages are based on all countries participating in the TALIS survey, including partner countries and economies. 
		This explains the difference between the OECD average and the TALIS averages.
		Data from the TALIS survey and Education at a Glance (EAG) may differ. See Annex E of the TALIS technical report and 
		Annex 3 
		of EAG 2021 for more details about the data collections.
            

    
			B-S-J-Z (China) refers to the four PISA-participating provinces/municipalities of the People's Republic of China:
Beijing, Shanghai, Jiangsu and Zhejiang.
			

    
            For additional notes, please refer to annexes in the list of links below the introductory country profile text.